The following references provide the scientific foundation and data sources that underpin the analyses and findings presented in the 2026 Starfish Barometer. They include peer-reviewed articles, official datasets, and authoritative reports from leading research institutions and international organizations. Each reference is linked to its original source for further consultation.
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Ocean State
Global mean sea level rise and Ocean warming are accelerating.
Leclercq, L., Oelsmann, J., Cazenave, A., Passaro, M., Jevrejeva, S., Connors, S., Legeais, J.-F., Birol, F., and Abarca-del-Rio, R.: Abrupt trend change in global mean sea level and its components in the early 2010s, Commun. Earth Environ., 7, 130, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-03149-5, 2026.
Minière, A., von Schuckmann, K., Sallée, J. B., and Vogt, L.: Robust acceleration of Earth system heating observed over the past six decades, Sci. Rep., 13, 22975, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598023-49353-1, 2023.
Mu, D., Huang, R., Yin, P., Yan, H., and Xu, T.: Reconstructing sea level rise from global tide gauges since 1900, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 5507–5528, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-5507-2025, 2025.
Pan, Y., Cheng, L., Abraham, J., Trenberth, K. E., Reagan, J., Du, J., Wang, Z., Storto, A., Von Schuckmann, K., Zhu, Y., and Mann, M. E.: Ocean Heat Content Sets Another Record in 2025, Adv. Atmos. Sci., https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-026-5876-0, 2026.
Storto, A. and Yang, C.: Acceleration of the ocean warming from 1961 to 2022 unveiled by large-ensemble reanalyses, Nat. Commun., 15, 545, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-447497, 2024.
Tan, Z., Von Schuckmann, K., Speich, S., Bopp, L., Zhu, J., and Cheng, L.: Observed large-scale and deep-reaching compound ocean state changes over the past 60 years, Nat. Clim. Chang, 16, 58–68, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-025-02484-x, 2025
World Meteorological Organization (WMO). State of the Global Climate 2025 (WMO-No. 1342). Geneva, 2026. ISBN: 978-92-63-11299-7. https://doi.org/10.59327/WMO/S/CRI/SOC1
Global sea ice extent reached its second lowest annual maximum at 32.1 million km2 since 1982.
Hobbs, W., Spence, P., Meyer, A., Schroeter, S., Fraser, A. D., Reid, P., Tian, T. R., Wang, Z., Liniger, G., Doddridge, E. W., and Boyd, P. W.: Observational evidence for a regime shift in summer Antarctic sea ice, J. Climate, 37, 2263–2275, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-23-0479.1, 2024.
Howell, S. E. L., Cabaj, A., Babb, D. G., Landy, J. C., Dawson, J., Mahmud, M., and Brady, M.: Near sea ice-free conditions in the northern route of the Northwest Passage at the end of the 2024 melt season, The Cryosphere, 19, 6711–6725, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6711-2025, 2025
IPCC: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, Cambridge University Press, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964, 2019.
Meier, W. N., Petty, A., Hendricks, S., Bliss, A., Kaleschke, L., Divine, D., Farrell, S., Gerland, S., Perovich, D., Ricker, R., Tian-Kunze, X., and Webster, M.: NOAA Arctic Report Card 2025: Sea Ice, NOAA technical report OAR ARC 25-06 (Arctic Report Card), https://doi.org/10.25923/mmxf-0r86, 2025.
von Schuckmann, K., Moreira, L., Grégoire, M., Marcos, M., Staneva, J., Brasseur, P., Garric, G., Lionello, P., Karstensen, J., and Neukermans, G. (Eds.): 8th edition of the Copernicus Ocean State Report (OSR8), Copernicus Publications, State Planet, 4-osr8, 10.5194/sp-4-osr8, 2024.
Walsh, J. E., Eicken, H., Redilla, K., and Johnson, M.: Sea ice breakup and freeze-up indicators for users of the Arctic coastal environment, The Cryosphere, 16, 4617–4635, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4617-2022, 2022.
The number of threatened marine species has risen to 1685 with deterioration in conservation status.
Lévy, M., von Schuckmann, K., Vincent, P., Blanke, B., Claudet, J., Guillotreau, P., Hasson, A., Jolly, C., Shin, Y., Thébaud, O., Vincent, A., and Bahurel, P.: The 2025 Starfish Barometer, in: 9th edition of the Copernicus Ocean State Report (OSR9), edited by: von Schuckmann, K., Moreira, L., de Pascual Collar, Á., Grégoire, M., Brasseur, P., Garric, G., Karstensen, J., Lionello, P., Marcos, M., Poulain, P.-M., and Staneva, J., Copernicus Publications, State Planet, 6-osr9, 1, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-6-osr91-2025, 2025.
84.4 % of coral reefs experienced heat stress severe enough to cause bleaching.
Bhuyan, M. S., Jenzri, M., Islam, M. T., Adikari, D., and Hoque, M. M.: Climate change impacts on coral reefs and emerging resilience pathways: A systematic review, Ocean Coast. Manag., 276, 108134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2026.108134, 2026.
IPCC: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, Cambridge University Press, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964, 2019.
Pearce-Kelly, P., Altieri, A. H., Bruno, J. F., Cornwall, C. E., McField, M., Muñiz-Castillo, A. I., Rocha, J., Setter, R. O., Sheppard, C., Roman-Cuesta, R. M., and Yesson, C.: Considerations for determining warm-water coral reef tipping points, Earth Syst. Dynam., 16, 275–292, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-275-2025, 2025.
Ramsar: Global Wetland Outlook 2025: Valuing, conserving, restoring and financing wetlands, Secretariat of the Convention on Wetlands, Gland, Switzerland, https://doi.org/10.69556/GWO2025-eng, 2005.
Souter, D., Planes, S., Wicquart, J., Logan, M., Obura, D., and Staub, F. (Eds.): Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2020, Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), Australian Institute of Marine Science, https://gcrmn.net/2020-report/.
Human Pressures
Global shipping emissions remain stable, indicating limited decarbonisation progress.
Tekman, M. B., Walther, B. A., Peter, C., Gutow, L., and Bergmann, M.: Impacts of plastic pollution in the oceans on marine species, biodiversity and ecosystems, WWF Germany, Berlin, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5898684, 2022.
UNEP: From Pollution to Solution: A global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution, Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme, https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/36963, 2021.
Zhu, X., Rochman, C. M., Hardesty, B. D., and Wilcox, C.: Plastics in the deep sea – A global estimate of the ocean floor reservoir, Deep-Sea Res.-Pt. I, 206, 104266, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2024.104266, 2024.
67% of industrial fishing vessels in large coastal marine protected areas are untracked.
Dahms, C. and Killen, S. S.: Temperature change effects on marine fish range shifts: A meta-analysis of ecological and methodological predictors, Glob. Change Biol., 29, 4459–4479, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16770, 2023.
Paolo, F. S., Kroodsma, D., Raynor, J., Hochberg, T., Davis, P., Cleary, J., Marsaglia, L., Orofino, S., Thomas, C., and Halpin, P.: Satellite mapping reveals extensive industrial activity at sea, Nature, 625, 85–91, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-068258, 2024.
Pinsky, M. L., Selden, R. L., and Kitchel, Z. J.: Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: scaling from organisms to communities, Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci., 12, 153–179, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-010419-010916, 2020.
Raynor, J., Orofino, S., Costello, C., McDonald, G., Mayorga, J., and Sala, E.: Little-to-no industrial fishing occurs in fully and highly protected marine areas, Science, 389, 392–395, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt9009, 2025.
Seguin, R., Le Manach, F., Devillers, R., Velez, L., and Mouillot, D.: Global patterns and drivers of untracked industrial fishing in coastal marine protected areas, Science, 389, 396–401, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ado9468, 2025.
Sharma, R., Barange, M., Agostini, V., Barros, P., Gutierrez, N. L., Vasconcellos, M., Fernandez Reguera, D., Tiffay, C., and Levontin, P. (Eds.): Review of the state of world marine fishery resources – 2025, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Papers, No. 721, Rome, https://doi.org/10.4060/cd5538en, 2025.
31 exploration contracts for deep-sea mineral resources are currently active.
Amon, D. J., Levin, L. A., Metaxas, A., Mudd, G. M., and Smith, C. R.: Heading to the deep end without knowing how to swim: Do we need deep-seabed mining?, One Earth, 5, 220–223, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2022.02.013, 2022.
Hilmi, N., Dbouk, W., Crisóstomo, M., Couvreur, C., Arruda, G., Aziza, A., and Bax, N.: Governing the deep: Economic, ecological, and legal perspectives on deep-sea mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction, Mar. Policy, 183, 106887, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2025.106887, 2026.
Sánchez, O., Stefanni, S., and Bhadury, P.: The deep sea biodiversity and conservation collection, Sci. Rep., 14, 27559, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-77742-7, 2024.
A record 130 Mt of plastic waste was produced, with up to 10 % potentially reaching the Ocean.
Tekman, M. B., Walther, B. A., Peter, C., Gutow, L., and Bergmann, M.: Impacts of plastic pollution in the oceans on marine species, biodiversity and ecosystems, WWF Germany, Berlin, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5898684, 2022.
UNEP: From Pollution to Solution: A global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution, Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme, https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/36963, 2021.
Zhu, X., Rochman, C. M., Hardesty, B. D., and Wilcox, C.: Plastics in the deep sea – A global estimate of the ocean floor reservoir, Deep-Sea Res.-Pt. I, 206, 104266, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2024.104266, 2024.
Societal Harms
High economic losses from tropical storms and floods in 2024.
Fischer, S. and Patterson, L.: Natural disasters, environmental values, and the importance of politics: Empirical evidence from worldwide survey data, J. Econ. Psychol., 114, 102890, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2026.102890, 2026.
Guan, S., Huang, M., Cai, W., Zhang, Z., Lin, I. I., Kim, H. S., Zhou, L., Lin, X., Xu, Z., Jin, F. F., and Mei, W.: Weak self-induced cooling of tropical cyclones amid fast sea surface warming, Nat. Geosci., 19, 153–158, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-025-01879-x, 2026.
Hallegatte, S., Vogt-Schilb, A., Rozenberg, J., Bangalore, M., and Beaudet, C.: From Poverty to Disaster and Back: a Review of the Literature, Econ. Disasters Clim. Chang., 4, 223–247, https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-020-00060-5, 2020.
Jing, R., Heft-Neal, S., Wang, Z., Chen, J., Qiu, M., Opper, I. M., Wagner, Z., and Bendavid, E.: Decreased likelihood of schooling as a consequence of tropical cyclones: Evidence from 13 low- and middle-income countries, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 122, e2413962122, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2413962122, 2025.
Weerasinghe, T., Amaratunga, D., and Haigh, R.: Appraising investments in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR): A systematic literature review, Prog. Disaster Sci., 26, 100438, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2025.100438, 2025.
WMO: State of the Global Climate 2021, WMO-No. 1290, ISBN 978-92-63-11290-3, https://library.wmo.int/idurl/4/56300, 2021. Last access: 12 March 2026.
Geopolitical instability has increased maritime insurance costs to USD 39.9 billion.
Chi, X., Zheng, R., Chen, Y., and Xiao, G.: Research on the volatility spillover effects of geopolitical conflict risks on international shipping and crude oil markets, Front. Mar. Sci., 12, 1647599, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1647599, 2025.
Cong, L., Zhang, H., Wang, P., Chu, C., and Wang, J.: Impact of the Russia-Ukraine Conflict on Global Marine Network Based on Massive Vessel Trajectories, Remote Sens., 16, 1329, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16081329, 2024.
Kotenko, S., Ilchenko, S., Kasianova, V., Diakov, V., Mashkantseva, S., and Nitsenko, V.: Determination of the Expected Value of Losses Caused by the Cargo Transportation Insurance Risks by Water Transport, Inventions, 7, 81, https://doi.org/10.3390/inventions7030081, 2022.
Half of the social cost of climate change falls on the Ocean economy.
Bastien-Olvera, B. A., Aburto-Oropeza, O., Brander, L. M., Cheung, W. W., Emmerling, J., Free, C. M., Granella, F., Tavoni, M., Verschuur, J., and Ricke, K.: Accounting for ocean impacts nearly doubles the social cost of carbon, Nat. Clim. Chang., https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-025-02533-5, 2026.
Maatouk, C., Germanos, O., Khattab, Y., Aad, A. M., Aboelhassam, Y. M. E. I., Gandour, G., Hafeez, H. S., Vicerra, P. M. M., Budhathoki, S. S., Lucas, D., and Canals, M. L.: Migration and health policy: Applying the nexus to safety issues of migrants crossing the Mediterranean Sea, Public Health Chall., 4, e70023, https://doi.org/10.1002/puh2.70023, 2025.
Marine Protection Atlas: https://mpatlas.org, last access: 25 February 2026.
Yang, X., Chen, D., Wahab, I., and Burman, A.: Evidence of climate and economic drivers affecting migration in an unequal and warming world, Commun. Earth Environ., 6, 782, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02811-2, 2025.
Protection efforts
Marine protected areas cover 10.01 % of the global Ocean, with 3.2 % fully or highly protected.
Barzuna, C., Haugan, P., Barbière, J., Swift, A., Khan, M., Ansong, J. O., James, P. A. S., Scherer, M., Thiele, T., von Schuckmann, K., Abramic, A., Barrowclough, D., Cisneros-Montemayor, A., Girón, A., Heaps, L., Koirala, S., Lyons, M., Paul, K., Priyanto, A. T., Randone, M., Rosado, S., Santos, C. F., Savoldelli, C., Spalding, A. K., Strand, M., Sumaila, U. R., Swaddling, A., Turner, J., Vestergaard, O., and Yulianto, I.: Handbook on Sustainable Ocean Plans: A practitioners' guide, World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, https://oceanpanel.org/publication/sop-handbook/, 2025. Last access: 12 March 2026.
Horta e Costa, B., de Benito-Abelló, C., Pike, E., Turnbull, J., MacCarthy, J., Harasta, N., Fragkopoulou, E., Roessger, J., Sullivan-Stack, J., Grorud-Colvert, K., and Gill, D.: Marine protected areas stage of establishment and level of protection are good predictors of their conservation outcomes, Cell Rep. Sustain., 2, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsus.2025.100345, 2025.
Lévy, M., von Schuckmann, K., Vincent, P., Blanke, B., Claudet, J., Guillotreau, P., Hasson, A., Jolly, C., Shin, Y., Thébaud, O., Vincent, A., and Bahurel, P.: The 2025 Starfish Barometer, in: 9th edition of the Copernicus Ocean State Report (OSR9), edited by: von Schuckmann, K., Moreira, L., de Pascual Collar, Á., Grégoire, M., Brasseur, P., Garric, G., Karstensen, J., Lionello, P., Marcos, M., Poulain, P.-M., and Staneva, J., Copernicus Publications, State Planet, 6-osr9, 1, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-6-osr91-2025, 2025.
Marine Protection Atlas: https://mpatlas.org, last access: 25 February 2026.
Major in-situ Ocean observing systems are shrinking reducing Ocean protection capacity.
Boyer, T., Zhang, H., O'Brien, K., Reagan, J., Diggs, S., Freeman, E., Garcia, H., Heslop, E., Hogan, P., Huang, B., Jiang, L., Kozyr, A., Liu, C., Locarnini, R., Mishonov, A., Paver, C., Wang, Z., Zweng, M., Alin, S., Barbero, L., Barth, J., Belbeoch, M., Cebrian, J., Connell, K., Cowley, R., Dukhovskoy, D., Galbraith, N., Goni, G., Katz, F., Kramp, M., Kumar, A., Legler, D., Lumpkin, R., McMahon, C., Pierrot, D., Plueddemann, A., Smith, E., Sutton, A., Turpin, V., Jiang, L., Suneel, V., Wanninkhof, R., Weller, R., and Wong, A.: Effects of the Pandemic on Observing the Global Ocean, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 104, E389–E410, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-21-0210.1, 2023.
Gattuso, J.-P., Houllier, F., Adams, J., Amon, D., Bambridge, T., Cheung, W., Chiba, S., Cortés, J., Duarte, C. M., Frölicher, T., Gelcich, S., Gjerde, K., Greaves, D., Haugan, P. M., Li, D., and Tuda, A.: US federal cuts threaten international ocean science and diplomacy, Nature Ecology and Evolution, 9, 1079–1080, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-025-02750-3, 2025.
Tanhua, T., Traon, P.-Y. L., Köstner, N., Eparkhina, D., Navarro, G., Dunbar, M. B., Speich, S., Pascual, A., von Schuckmann, K., Liguori, G., Karstensen, J., Hassoun, A. E. R., Doorn, E. van, Barceló-Llull, B., Gómez, B. P., Cusack, C., Heslop, E., Lara-Lopez, A., Petihakis, G., Telszewski, M., Palacz, A. P., Wilmer-Becker, K., Pearlman, J., Piniella, Á. M., Heymans, J. J., and Lips, I.: Towards a sustained and fit-for-purpose European ocean observing and forecasting system, Front. Mar. Sci., 11, 1394549, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1394549, 2024.
von Jackowski, A.: Navigating the current landscape of ocean observations: an overview from platform infrastructures to networks related to ocean time series, Front. Mar. Sci., 11, 1363863, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1363863, 2025.
Two international Ocean treaties have entered into force.
Selig, E. R., Nakayama, S., Wabnitz, C. C. C., Österblom, H., Spijkers, J., Miller, N. A., Bebbington, J., and Decker Sparks, J. L.: Revealing global risks of labor abuse and illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, Nat. Commun., 13, 1612, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28916-2, 2022.
Stronger international protections for sharks and rays adopted.
CITES: Amendments to Appendices I and II of the Convention adopted by the Conference of the Parties at its 20th meeting, Samarkand, 24 November–5 December 2025, Notification To The Parties, No. 2026/005, Geneva, https://cites.org/sites/default/files/notifications/E-Notif-2026-005_0.pdf, 2026a. Last access: 12 March 2026.
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, https://cites.org/eng, last access: 2 April 2026b.
Global nutrition from fisheries increasingly relies on circular economy practices.
FAO FishStatJ: Software for Fishery and Aquaculture Statistical Time Series, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/topic/166235/en, last access: 2 April 2026.
FAO SOFIA: Blue Transformation in action, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) 2024, Rome, https://doi.org/10.4060/cd0683en, 2024.
Lévy, M., von Schuckmann, K., Vincent, P., Blanke, B., Claudet, J., Guillotreau, P., Hasson, A., Jolly, C., Shin, Y., Thébaud, O., Vincent, A., and Bahurel, P.: The 2025 Starfish Barometer, in: 9th edition of the Copernicus Ocean State Report (OSR9), edited by: von Schuckmann, K., Moreira, L., de Pascual Collar, Á., Grégoire, M., Brasseur, P., Garric, G., Karstensen, J., Lionello, P., Marcos, M., Poulain, P.-M., and Staneva, J., Copernicus Publications, State Planet, 6-osr9, 1, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-6-osr91-2025, 2025.
Jones, M., Polasky, S., Rueda, X., Brooks, S., Ingram, J. C., von Hase, A., Egoh, B., Kohsaka, R., Kulak, M., Leach, K., Loyola, R., Mandle, L., Rodriguez Osuna, V., Schaafsma, M., & Sonter, L. (2025). IPBES Business and Biodiversity Assessment: Summary for Policymakers. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19705111.
Johansen, D. F. and Vestvik, R. A.: The cost of saving our ocean-estimating the funding gap of sustainable development goal 14, Mar. Policy, 112, 103783, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103783, 2020. Last access: 12 March 2026.
Forster, P. M., Smith, C., Walsh, T., Lamb, W. F., Lamboll, R., Cassou, C., Hauser, M., Hausfather, Z., Lee, J.-Y., Palmer, M. D., von Schuckmann, K., Slangen, A. B. A., Szopa, S., Trewin, B., Yun, J., Gillett, N. P., Jenkins, S., Matthews, H. D., Raghavan, K., Ribes, A., Rogelj, J., Rosen, D., Zhang, X., Allen, M., Aleluia Reis, L., Andrew, R. M., Betts, R. A., Borger, A., Broersma, J. A., Burgess, S. N., Cheng, L., Friedlingstein, P., Domingues, C. M., Gambarini, M., Gasser, T., Gütschow, J., Ishii, M., Kadow, C., Kennedy, J., Killick, R. E., Krummel, P. B., Liné, A., Monselesan, D. P., Morice, C., Mühle, J., Naik, V., Peters, G. P., Pirani, A., Pongratz, J., Minx, J. C., Rigby, M., Rohde, R., Savita, A., Seneviratne, S. I., Thorne, P., Wells, C., Western, L. M., van der Werf, G. R., Wijffels, S. E., Masson-Delmotte, V., and Zhai, P.: Indicators of Global Climate Change 2024: annual update of key indicators of the state of the climate system and human influence, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 2641–2680, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-2641-2025, 2025.
Friedlingstein, P., O'Sullivan, M., Jones, M. W., Andrew, R. M., Bakker, D. C. E., Hauck, J., Landschützer, P., Le Quéré, C., Li, H., Luijkx, I. T., Peters, G. P., Peters, W., Pongratz, J., Schwingshackl, C., Sitch, S., Canadell, J. G., Ciais, P., Aas, K., Alin, S. R., Anthoni, P., Barbero, L., Bates, N. R., Bellouin, N., Benoit-Cattin, A., Berghoff, C. F., Bernardello, R., Bopp, L., Brasika, I. B. M., Chamberlain, M. A., Chandra, N., Chevallier, F., Chini, L. P., Collier, N. O., Colligan, T. H., Cronin, M., Djeutchouang, L., Dou, X., Enright, M. P., Enyo, K., Erb, M., Evans, W., Feely, R. A., Feng, L., Ford, D. J., Foster, A., Fransner, F., Gasser, T., Gehlen, M., Gkritzalis, T., Goncalves De Souza, J., Grassi, G., Gregor, L., Gruber, N., Guenet, B., Gürses, Ö., Harrington, K., Harris, I., Heinke, J., Hurtt, G. C., Iida, Y., Ilyina, T., Ito, A., Jacobson, A. R., Jain, A. K., Jarníková, T., Jersild, A., Jiang, F., Jones, S. D., Kato, E., Keeling, R. F., Klein Goldewijk, K., Knauer, J., Kong, Y., Korsbakken, J. I., Koven, C., Kunimitsu, T., Lan, X., Liu, J., Liu, Z., Liu, Z., Lo Monaco, C., Ma, L., Marland, G., McGuire, P. C., McKinley, G. A., Melton, J., Monacci, N., Monier, E., Morgan, E. J., Munro, D. R., Müller, J. D., Nakaoka, S.-I., Nayagam, L. R., Niwa, Y., Nutzel, T., Olsen, A., Omar, A. M., Pan, N., Pandey, S., Pierrot, D., Qin, Z., Regnier, P. A. G., Rehder, G., Resplandy, L., Roobaert, A., Rosan, T. M., Rödenbeck, C., Schwinger, J., Skjelvan, I., Smallman, T. L., Spada, V., Sreeush, M. G., Sun, Q., Sutton, A. J., Sweeney, C., Swingedouw, D., Séférian, R., Takao, S., Tatebe, H., Tian, H., Tian, X., Tilbrook, B., Tsujino, H., Tubiello, F., van Ooijen, E., van der Werf, G., van de Velde, S. J., Walker, A., Wanninkhof, R., Yang, X., Yuan, W., Yue, X., and Zeng, J.: Global Carbon Budget 2025, Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss. [preprint], https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-2025-659, in review, 2025.
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