Referencias del Barómetro Starfish 2026

Ediciones

2026 2025

Las referencias que figuran a continuación constituyen la base científica del Barómetro Starfish 2026. Incluyen artículos revisados por pares, conjuntos de datos oficiales y informes de referencia procedentes de organismos de investigación e instituciones internacionales. Cada referencia incluye un enlace a su fuente original.

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Estado del Océano

El nivel medio global del mar y el calentamiento del océano están aumentando a un ritmo acelerado.

Leclercq, L., Oelsmann, J., Cazenave, A., Passaro, M., Jevrejeva, S., Connors, S., Legeais, J.-F., Birol, F., and Abarca-del-Rio, R.: Abrupt trend change in global mean sea level and its components in the early 2010s, Commun. Earth Environ., 7, 130, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-03149-5, 2026.
Minière, A., von Schuckmann, K., Sallée, J. B., and Vogt, L.: Robust acceleration of Earth system heating observed over the past six decades, Sci. Rep., 13, 22975, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598023-49353-1, 2023.
Mu, D., Huang, R., Yin, P., Yan, H., and Xu, T.: Reconstructing sea level rise from global tide gauges since 1900, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 17, 5507–5528, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-17-5507-2025, 2025.
Mercator Ocean International: Marine Heatwave Forecasts – 28 June 2025: https://www.mercator-ocean.eu/bulletin/marine-heatwave-forecasts-28-june-2025/ (last access: 2 March 2026), 2025a.
Pan, Y., Cheng, L., Abraham, J., Trenberth, K. E., Reagan, J., Du, J., Wang, Z., Storto, A., Von Schuckmann, K., Zhu, Y., and Mann, M. E.: Ocean Heat Content Sets Another Record in 2025, Adv. Atmos. Sci., https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-026-5876-0, 2026.
Storto, A. and Yang, C.: Acceleration of the ocean warming from 1961 to 2022 unveiled by large-ensemble reanalyses, Nat. Commun., 15, 545, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-447497, 2024.
Tan, Z., Von Schuckmann, K., Speich, S., Bopp, L., Zhu, J., and Cheng, L.: Observed large-scale and deep-reaching compound ocean state changes over the past 60 years, Nat. Clim. Chang, 16, 58–68, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-025-02484-x, 2025
Wang, J., Church, J. A., Zhang, X. and Chen, X.: Improved Sea Level Reconstruction from 1900 to 2019, J. Clim., 37, 6453–6474, https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/37/24/JCLI-D-23-0410.1.xml, 2024.
World Meteorological Organization (WMO). State of the Global Climate 2025 (WMO-No. 1342). Geneva, 2026. ISBN: 978-92-63-11299-7. https://doi.org/10.59327/WMO/S/CRI/SOC1

La extensión global del hielo marino alcanzó su segundo máximo anual más bajo desde 1982, con 32,1 millones de km².

Bliss, A. C., Comiso, J. C., Parkinson, C. L., Gersten, R., and Markus, T.: Current State of Sea Ice Cover, https://earth.gsfc.nasa.gov/cryo/data/current-state-sea-ice-cover (last access: 2 April 2026), 2025.
Hobbs, W., Spence, P., Meyer, A., Schroeter, S., Fraser, A. D., Reid, P., Tian, T. R., Wang, Z., Liniger, G., Doddridge, E. W., and Boyd, P. W.: Observational evidence for a regime shift in summer Antarctic sea ice, J. Climate, 37, 2263–2275, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-23-0479.1, 2024.
Howell, S. E. L., Cabaj, A., Babb, D. G., Landy, J. C., Dawson, J., Mahmud, M., and Brady, M.: Near sea ice-free conditions in the northern route of the Northwest Passage at the end of the 2024 melt season, The Cryosphere, 19, 6711–6725, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-19-6711-2025, 2025
IPCC: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, Cambridge University Press, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964, 2019.
Meier, W. N., Petty, A., Hendricks, S., Bliss, A., Kaleschke, L., Divine, D., Farrell, S., Gerland, S., Perovich, D., Ricker, R., Tian-Kunze, X., and Webster, M.: NOAA Arctic Report Card 2025: Sea Ice, NOAA technical report OAR ARC 25-06 (Arctic Report Card), https://doi.org/10.25923/mmxf-0r86, 2025.
PAME – Arctic Shipping Status Report #1 (updated February 2026). https://oaarchive.arctic-council.org/bitstreams/61870641-ba6a-4e1d-8e71-be201713a27f/download. Last access: 12 March 2026.
Roach, L. A. and Meier, W. N.: Sea ice in 2023, Nat. Rev. Earth Environ., 5, 235–237, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-024-00542-0, 2024
von Schuckmann, K., Moreira, L., Grégoire, M., Marcos, M., Staneva, J., Brasseur, P., Garric, G., Lionello, P., Karstensen, J., and Neukermans, G. (Eds.): 8th edition of the Copernicus Ocean State Report (OSR8), Copernicus Publications, State Planet, 4-osr8, 10.5194/sp-4-osr8, 2024.
Walsh, J. E., Eicken, H., Redilla, K., and Johnson, M.: Sea ice breakup and freeze-up indicators for users of the Arctic coastal environment, The Cryosphere, 16, 4617–4635, https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-4617-2022, 2022.

Actualmente, 1.685 especies marinas se encuentran amenazadas, con un deterioro en su estado de conservación.

IUCN: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: https://www.iucnredlist.org/en, last access: 2 April 2026.
Lévy, M., von Schuckmann, K., Vincent, P., Blanke, B., Claudet, J., Guillotreau, P., Hasson, A., Jolly, C., Shin, Y., Thébaud, O., Vincent, A., and Bahurel, P.: The 2025 Starfish Barometer, in: 9th edition of the Copernicus Ocean State Report (OSR9), edited by: von Schuckmann, K., Moreira, L., de Pascual Collar, Á., Grégoire, M., Brasseur, P., Garric, G., Karstensen, J., Lionello, P., Marcos, M., Poulain, P.-M., and Staneva, J., Copernicus Publications, State Planet, 6-osr9, 1, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-6-osr91-2025, 2025.

El 84,4 % de los arrecifes de coral sufrieron estrés térmico lo suficientemente severo como para causar blanqueamiento.

Bhuyan, M. S., Jenzri, M., Islam, M. T., Adikari, D., and Hoque, M. M.: Climate change impacts on coral reefs and emerging resilience pathways: A systematic review, Ocean Coast. Manag., 276, 108134, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2026.108134, 2026.
Coral Reef Watch: https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/satellite/research/coral_bleaching_report.php, last access: 2 April 2026.
IPCC: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, Cambridge University Press, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964, 2019.
Pearce-Kelly, P., Altieri, A. H., Bruno, J. F., Cornwall, C. E., McField, M., Muñiz-Castillo, A. I., Rocha, J., Setter, R. O., Sheppard, C., Roman-Cuesta, R. M., and Yesson, C.: Considerations for determining warm-water coral reef tipping points, Earth Syst. Dynam., 16, 275–292, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-16-275-2025, 2025.
Ramsar: Global Wetland Outlook 2025: Valuing, conserving, restoring and financing wetlands, Secretariat of the Convention on Wetlands, Gland, Switzerland, https://doi.org/10.69556/GWO2025-eng, 2005.
Souter, D., Planes, S., Wicquart, J., Logan, M., Obura, D., and Staub, F. (Eds.): Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2020, Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), Australian Institute of Marine Science, https://gcrmn.net/2020-report/.

Presiones humanas

Las emisiones globales del transporte marítimo se mantienen estables, mostrando un progreso limitado en la descarbonización

Global Plastic Action Partnership: https://www.globalplasticaction.org/home, last access: 2 April 2026.
Tekman, M. B., Walther, B. A., Peter, C., Gutow, L., and Bergmann, M.: Impacts of plastic pollution in the oceans on marine species, biodiversity and ecosystems, WWF Germany, Berlin, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5898684, 2022.
The Pew Charitable Trusts: Breaking the Plastic Wave 2025, https://www.pew.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2025/12/breaking-the-plastic-wave-2025 (last access: 2 April 2026), 2025.
UNEP: From Pollution to Solution: A global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution, Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme, https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/36963, 2021.
Zhu, X., Rochman, C. M., Hardesty, B. D., and Wilcox, C.: Plastics in the deep sea – A global estimate of the ocean floor reservoir, Deep-Sea Res.-Pt. I, 206, 104266, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2024.104266, 2024.

67% de los buques de pesca industrial en grandes áreas marinas protegidas costeras no están siendo monitoreados

Dahms, C. and Killen, S. S.: Temperature change effects on marine fish range shifts: A meta-analysis of ecological and methodological predictors, Glob. Change Biol., 29, 4459–4479, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16770, 2023.
Paolo, F. S., Kroodsma, D., Raynor, J., Hochberg, T., Davis, P., Cleary, J., Marsaglia, L., Orofino, S., Thomas, C., and Halpin, P.: Satellite mapping reveals extensive industrial activity at sea, Nature, 625, 85–91, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-068258, 2024.
Pinsky, M. L., Selden, R. L., and Kitchel, Z. J.: Climate-driven shifts in marine species ranges: scaling from organisms to communities, Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci., 12, 153–179, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-010419-010916, 2020.
Raynor, J., Orofino, S., Costello, C., McDonald, G., Mayorga, J., and Sala, E.: Little-to-no industrial fishing occurs in fully and highly protected marine areas, Science, 389, 392–395, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adt9009, 2025.
Seguin, R., Le Manach, F., Devillers, R., Velez, L., and Mouillot, D.: Global patterns and drivers of untracked industrial fishing in coastal marine protected areas, Science, 389, 396–401, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ado9468, 2025.
Sharma, R., Barange, M., Agostini, V., Barros, P., Gutierrez, N. L., Vasconcellos, M., Fernandez Reguera, D., Tiffay, C., and Levontin, P. (Eds.): Review of the state of world marine fishery resources – 2025, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Papers, No. 721, Rome, https://doi.org/10.4060/cd5538en, 2025.

Actualmente hay 31 contratos activos de exploración de recursos minerales en aguas profundas.

Amon, D. J., Levin, L. A., Metaxas, A., Mudd, G. M., and Smith, C. R.: Heading to the deep end without knowing how to swim: Do we need deep-seabed mining?, One Earth, 5, 220–223, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2022.02.013, 2022.
Deep Sea Conservation Coalition: https://deep-sea-conservation.org/solutions/no-deep-sea-mining/momentum-for-a-moratorium/, last access: 2 April 2026.
Hilmi, N., Dbouk, W., Crisóstomo, M., Couvreur, C., Arruda, G., Aziza, A., and Bax, N.: Governing the deep: Economic, ecological, and legal perspectives on deep-sea mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction, Mar. Policy, 183, 106887, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2025.106887, 2026.
International Seabed Authority: https://isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts/, last access: 2 April 2026.
Sánchez, O., Stefanni, S., and Bhadury, P.: The deep sea biodiversity and conservation collection, Sci. Rep., 14, 27559, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-77742-7, 2024.

Los residuos plásticos alcanzaron un récord de 130 toneladas métricas (tm), con hasta un 10 % que podría terminar en el océano.

Global Plastic Action Partnership: https://www.globalplasticaction.org/home, last access: 2 April 2026.
Tekman, M. B., Walther, B. A., Peter, C., Gutow, L., and Bergmann, M.: Impacts of plastic pollution in the oceans on marine species, biodiversity and ecosystems, WWF Germany, Berlin, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5898684, 2022.
The Pew Charitable Trusts: Breaking the Plastic Wave 2025, https://www.pew.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2025/12/breaking-the-plastic-wave-2025 (last access: 2 April 2026), 2025.
UNEP: From Pollution to Solution: A global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution, Nairobi, United Nations Environment Programme, https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/36963, 2021.
Zhu, X., Rochman, C. M., Hardesty, B. D., and Wilcox, C.: Plastics in the deep sea – A global estimate of the ocean floor reservoir, Deep-Sea Res.-Pt. I, 206, 104266, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2024.104266, 2024.

Impactos sociales

Grandes pérdidas económicas por tormentas tropicales e inundaciones en 2024.

Fischer, S. and Patterson, L.: Natural disasters, environmental values, and the importance of politics: Empirical evidence from worldwide survey data, J. Econ. Psychol., 114, 102890, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2026.102890, 2026.
Guan, S., Huang, M., Cai, W., Zhang, Z., Lin, I. I., Kim, H. S., Zhou, L., Lin, X., Xu, Z., Jin, F. F., and Mei, W.: Weak self-induced cooling of tropical cyclones amid fast sea surface warming, Nat. Geosci., 19, 153–158, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-025-01879-x, 2026.
Hallegatte, S., Vogt-Schilb, A., Rozenberg, J., Bangalore, M., and Beaudet, C.: From Poverty to Disaster and Back: a Review of the Literature, Econ. Disasters Clim. Chang., 4, 223–247, https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-020-00060-5, 2020.
Jing, R., Heft-Neal, S., Wang, Z., Chen, J., Qiu, M., Opper, I. M., Wagner, Z., and Bendavid, E.: Decreased likelihood of schooling as a consequence of tropical cyclones: Evidence from 13 low- and middle-income countries, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 122, e2413962122, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2413962122, 2025.
Munich RE: https://www.munichre.com/en/risks/natural-disasters/hurricanes.html, last access: 25 February 2026.
Weerasinghe, T., Amaratunga, D., and Haigh, R.: Appraising investments in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR): A systematic literature review, Prog. Disaster Sci., 26, 100438, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2025.100438, 2025.
WMO: State of the Global Climate 2021, WMO-No. 1290, ISBN 978-92-63-11290-3, https://library.wmo.int/idurl/4/56300, 2021. Last access: 12 March 2026.

La inestabilidad geopolítica ha incrementado los costes de los seguros hasta 39,9 mil millones de dólares estadounidenses.

Chi, X., Zheng, R., Chen, Y., and Xiao, G.: Research on the volatility spillover effects of geopolitical conflict risks on international shipping and crude oil markets, Front. Mar. Sci., 12, 1647599, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2025.1647599, 2025.
Cong, L., Zhang, H., Wang, P., Chu, C., and Wang, J.: Impact of the Russia-Ukraine Conflict on Global Marine Network Based on Massive Vessel Trajectories, Remote Sens., 16, 1329, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16081329, 2024.
IUMI: IUMI STATS Report 2025, International Union of Marine Insurance, Germany, https://iumi.com/wp-content/uploads/2026/02/IUMI-Stats-Report-2025-2.pdf, 2025.
Kotenko, S., Ilchenko, S., Kasianova, V., Diakov, V., Mashkantseva, S., and Nitsenko, V.: Determination of the Expected Value of Losses Caused by the Cargo Transportation Insurance Risks by Water Transport, Inventions, 7, 81, https://doi.org/10.3390/inventions7030081, 2022.

La mitad del coste social del cambio climático recae en la economía del océano.

Bastien-Olvera, B. A., Aburto-Oropeza, O., Brander, L. M., Cheung, W. W., Emmerling, J., Free, C. M., Granella, F., Tavoni, M., Verschuur, J., and Ricke, K.: Accounting for ocean impacts nearly doubles the social cost of carbon, Nat. Clim. Chang., https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-025-02533-5, 2026.
World Bank: State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2025, World Bank, Washington, DC, https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-2255-1, 2025.

8.260 migrantes perdieron la vida en el mar.

IOM: Missing Migrants Project by International Organization for Migration, https://missingmigrants.iom.int/data, last access: 25 February 2026.
Maatouk, C., Germanos, O., Khattab, Y., Aad, A. M., Aboelhassam, Y. M. E. I., Gandour, G., Hafeez, H. S., Vicerra, P. M. M., Budhathoki, S. S., Lucas, D., and Canals, M. L.: Migration and health policy: Applying the nexus to safety issues of migrants crossing the Mediterranean Sea, Public Health Chall., 4, e70023, https://doi.org/10.1002/puh2.70023, 2025.
Marine Protection Atlas: https://mpatlas.org, last access: 25 February 2026.
Yang, X., Chen, D., Wahab, I., and Burman, A.: Evidence of climate and economic drivers affecting migration in an unequal and warming world, Commun. Earth Environ., 6, 782, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-025-02811-2, 2025.

Esfuerzos de protección

Las áreas marinas protegidas cubren el 10,01 % del océano global, de las cuales el 3,2 % están total o altamente protegidas.

Barzuna, C., Haugan, P., Barbière, J., Swift, A., Khan, M., Ansong, J. O., James, P. A. S., Scherer, M., Thiele, T., von Schuckmann, K., Abramic, A., Barrowclough, D., Cisneros-Montemayor, A., Girón, A., Heaps, L., Koirala, S., Lyons, M., Paul, K., Priyanto, A. T., Randone, M., Rosado, S., Santos, C. F., Savoldelli, C., Spalding, A. K., Strand, M., Sumaila, U. R., Swaddling, A., Turner, J., Vestergaard, O., and Yulianto, I.: Handbook on Sustainable Ocean Plans: A practitioners' guide, World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, https://oceanpanel.org/publication/sop-handbook/, 2025. Last access: 12 March 2026.
Horta e Costa, B., de Benito-Abelló, C., Pike, E., Turnbull, J., MacCarthy, J., Harasta, N., Fragkopoulou, E., Roessger, J., Sullivan-Stack, J., Grorud-Colvert, K., and Gill, D.: Marine protected areas stage of establishment and level of protection are good predictors of their conservation outcomes, Cell Rep. Sustain., 2, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsus.2025.100345, 2025.
Lévy, M., von Schuckmann, K., Vincent, P., Blanke, B., Claudet, J., Guillotreau, P., Hasson, A., Jolly, C., Shin, Y., Thébaud, O., Vincent, A., and Bahurel, P.: The 2025 Starfish Barometer, in: 9th edition of the Copernicus Ocean State Report (OSR9), edited by: von Schuckmann, K., Moreira, L., de Pascual Collar, Á., Grégoire, M., Brasseur, P., Garric, G., Karstensen, J., Lionello, P., Marcos, M., Poulain, P.-M., and Staneva, J., Copernicus Publications, State Planet, 6-osr9, 1,https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-6-osr91-2025, 2025.
Marine Protection Atlas: https://mpatlas.org, last access: 25 February 2026.
Protected Planet: Marine Protected Areas, Protected Planet, https://www.protectedplanet.net/en/thematic-areas/marine-protected-areas, last access: 25 February 2026.

Los principales sistemas de observación oceánica in situ están disminuyendo, reduciendo la capacidad de protección del océano.

Boyer, T., Zhang, H., O'Brien, K., Reagan, J., Diggs, S., Freeman, E., Garcia, H., Heslop, E., Hogan, P., Huang, B., Jiang, L., Kozyr, A., Liu, C., Locarnini, R., Mishonov, A., Paver, C., Wang, Z., Zweng, M., Alin, S., Barbero, L., Barth, J., Belbeoch, M., Cebrian, J., Connell, K., Cowley, R., Dukhovskoy, D., Galbraith, N., Goni, G., Katz, F., Kramp, M., Kumar, A., Legler, D., Lumpkin, R., McMahon, C., Pierrot, D., Plueddemann, A., Smith, E., Sutton, A., Turpin, V., Jiang, L., Suneel, V., Wanninkhof, R., Weller, R., and Wong, A.: Effects of the Pandemic on Observing the Global Ocean, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 104, E389–E410, https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-21-0210.1, 2023.
Gattuso, J.-P., Houllier, F., Adams, J., Amon, D., Bambridge, T., Cheung, W., Chiba, S., Cortés, J., Duarte, C. M., Frölicher, T., Gelcich, S., Gjerde, K., Greaves, D., Haugan, P. M., Li, D., and Tuda, A.: US federal cuts threaten international ocean science and diplomacy, Nature Ecology and Evolution, 9, 1079–1080, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-025-02750-3, 2025.
GOOS: Global Ocean Observing System Status Report 2025, No. GOOS-310, https://www.ocean-ops.org/goosreport/#home, 2025.
Tanhua, T., Traon, P.-Y. L., Köstner, N., Eparkhina, D., Navarro, G., Dunbar, M. B., Speich, S., Pascual, A., von Schuckmann, K., Liguori, G., Karstensen, J., Hassoun, A. E. R., Doorn, E. van, Barceló-Llull, B., Gómez, B. P., Cusack, C., Heslop, E., Lara-Lopez, A., Petihakis, G., Telszewski, M., Palacz, A. P., Wilmer-Becker, K., Pearlman, J., Piniella, Á. M., Heymans, J. J., and Lips, I.: Towards a sustained and fit-for-purpose European ocean observing and forecasting system, Front. Mar. Sci., 11, 1394549, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1394549, 2024.
von Jackowski, A.: Navigating the current landscape of ocean observations: an overview from platform infrastructures to networks related to ocean time series, Front. Mar. Sci., 11, 1363863, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1363863, 2025.

Dos tratados internacionales sobre el océano han entrado en vigor.

OECD: Development co-operation for a sustainable ocean economy in 2022: A snapshot, https://one.oecd.org/document/DCD%282024%2921/en/pdf, 2024.
OECD: Review of Fisheries 2025, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/560cd8fc-en, 2025a. Last access: 12 March 2026.
Selig, E. R., Nakayama, S., Wabnitz, C. C. C., Österblom, H., Spijkers, J., Miller, N. A., Bebbington, J., and Decker Sparks, J. L.: Revealing global risks of labor abuse and illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, Nat. Commun., 13, 1612, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28916-2, 2022.
WTO (World Trade Organization): https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news25_e/fish_15sep25_e.htm, last access: 2 April 2026.

Se han adoptado protecciones internacionales más estrictas para tiburones y rayas.

CITES: Amendments to Appendices I and II of the Convention adopted by the Conference of the Parties at its 20th meeting, Samarkand, 24 November–5 December 2025, Notification To The Parties, No. 2026/005, Geneva, https://cites.org/sites/default/files/notifications/E-Notif-2026-005_0.pdf, 2026a. Last access: 12 March 2026.
CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, https://cites.org/eng, last access: 2 April 2026b.
IISD: Summary of the 20th Meeting of the CITES Conference of the Parties, 24 November–5 December 2025, Earth Negotiations Bulletin, https://enb.iisd.org/sites/default/files/2025-12/enb21124e.pdf, 2025.

Oportunidades para la humanidad

La nutrición global procedente de la pesca depende cada vez más de prácticas de economía circular.

FAO FishStatJ: Software for Fishery and Aquaculture Statistical Time Series, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/topic/166235/en, last access: 2 April 2026.
FAO SOFIA: Blue Transformation in action, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) 2024, Rome, https://doi.org/10.4060/cd0683en, 2024.
Lévy, M., von Schuckmann, K., Vincent, P., Blanke, B., Claudet, J., Guillotreau, P., Hasson, A., Jolly, C., Shin, Y., Thébaud, O., Vincent, A., and Bahurel, P.: The 2025 Starfish Barometer, in: 9th edition of the Copernicus Ocean State Report (OSR9), edited by: von Schuckmann, K., Moreira, L., de Pascual Collar, Á., Grégoire, M., Brasseur, P., Garric, G., Karstensen, J., Lionello, P., Marcos, M., Poulain, P.-M., and Staneva, J., Copernicus Publications, State Planet, 6-osr9, 1, https://doi.org/10.5194/sp-6-osr91-2025, 2025.

Más de 2.000 startups impulsan innovaciones relacionadas con el Océano.

Chang, L., Giron, C., and Tardiff, R.: The Ocean Economy Imperative: Defining Value, Managing Risk and Mobilizing Investment, World Economic Forum, https://reports.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Ocean_Economy_Imperative_2026.pdf, 2026. Last access: 12 March 2026.
Jones, M., Polasky, S., Rueda, X., Brooks, S., Ingram, J. C., von Hase, A., Egoh, B., Kohsaka, R., Kulak, M., Leach, K., Loyola, R., Mandle, L., Rodriguez Osuna, V., Schaafsma, M., & Sonter, L. (2025). IPBES Business and Biodiversity Assessment: Summary for Policymakers. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19705111.
Jolliffe J. and Jolly C.: Why ocean economy productivity is declining and what policymakers can do about it, OECD Blog, https://www.oecd.org/en/blogs/2025/09/why-ocean-economy-productivity-is-declining-and-what-policymakers-can-do-about-it.html, 2025. Last access: 12 March 2026.
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La inversión de impacto centrada en el océano está en expansión.

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El océano amortigua el cambio climático.

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